A-Level, IB, HKDSE or AP: What Qualifications Do You Need for a UK Foundation Programme in 2026?

International students considering a UK undergraduate degree have more than one route to entry. For many, the International Foundation Year (IFY) provides a structured bridge between secondary school qualifications and the demands of a British university. But navigating the entry requirements — which vary by International Study Centre (ISC), by qualification type, and by subject stream — can be a challenge. This article breaks down the 2026/27 entry landscape for the most common international qualifications, drawing on official ISC data from across the Study Group network.

How the IFY Entry System Works

Before diving into specific qualifications, it is worth understanding the structural logic behind foundation entry. Each ISC publishes its own thresholds, but the underlying framework is consistent. The core variables are:

  1. The qualification type and country of origin — not all qualifications are treated equally across ISCs.
  2. The grade threshold — expressed variously as UCAS tariff points, GPA, percentage scores, or letter grades depending on the system.
  3. The subject stream — Business, Science and Engineering, Law, and Health Sciences pathways often carry different prerequisites, particularly around mathematics.
  4. The ISC itself — a Russell Group ISC such as Durham or Sheffield will typically set higher bars than a post-1992 university ISC such as Huddersfield or Kingston.
  5. Age at enrolment — most ISCs require students to be at least 17 years old at the start of the programme, with specific age floors varying by centre.

The IFY is not a single qualification but a preparatory programme that leads to a specific university. This means entry requirements are set by the destination university, not a central body. The result is a spectrum of accessibility: a student with the same qualifications may be eligible for Cardiff’s foundation but not Durham’s, or vice versa depending on subject combination.

Qualification-by-Qualification Entry Guide

A-Level

A-Levels remain the standard-bearer for UK foundation entry. Every ISC in the Study Group network accepts A-Level or AS-Level qualifications, but the grade thresholds differ markedly:

  1. Durham IFY (3 terms) · AS: 24 UCAS points (Chinese language accepted). A-Level: 60 UCAS points (A-D grades accepted, AS can be combined). Accepts Chinese language.
  2. Leeds IFY (2 terms) · A-Level: 32 UCAS points (Chinese language accepted, E grade not accepted).
  3. Sheffield IFY (1.5 terms) · AS: 32 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted, only A-C grades, single subject with only A/B needs case-by-case review). A-Level: CC or DDD and above (Chinese language not accepted).
  4. Cardiff IFY (3 terms) · 24 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted). Medicine and Dentistry not accepted via IFY.
  5. Bath IFY · AS/A-Level: 24 UCAS points (excluding native language).
  6. Sussex IFY (2 terms) · 24 UCAS points (Chinese language accepted).
  7. Surrey IFY (2 terms) · 24 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).
  8. Aberdeen IFY (3 terms) · 24 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).
  9. Strathclyde IFY (3 terms) · 24 UCAS points (Chinese language accepted).
  10. RHUL IFY (3 terms) · 24 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).
  11. Huddersfield IFY (2 terms) · 12 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).
  12. Kingston IFY (3 terms) · 12 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).
  13. LJMU IFY (2 terms) · 12 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY (2 terms) · 12 UCAS points (Chinese language not accepted).

The key takeaway: the UCAS tariff spread between the most selective (Sheffield at 32 AS points without Chinese) and most accessible (Huddersfield, Kingston, LJMU, Leeds Beckett at 12 points) is nearly threefold. Sheffield’s exclusion of Chinese language from the tariff calculation is a significant filter — Chinese A-Level often represents the highest-scoring subject for many international applicants.

IB Diploma

The International Baccalaureate is accepted across the ISC network, with thresholds ranging from 20 to 26 points:

  1. Durham IFY · IB Diploma: 26 points. IB Certificate: 26 points accepted. Subject pass level is 3.
  2. Leeds IFY · IB Diploma: 26 points. IB Certificate: 26 points accepted. Subject pass level is 3.
  3. Sheffield IFY · IB Diploma: 26 points. IB Certificate: 26 points accepted. Subject pass level is 3.
  4. RHUL IFY · IB Diploma: 26 points. IB Certificate: 26 points accepted.
  5. Strathclyde IFY · IB Diploma: 26 points. IB Certificate: 26 points accepted.
  6. Bath IFY · IB first year: 24 points. IB Certificate: 24 points. IB Diploma: 24 points.
  7. Cardiff IFY · IB first year: 24 points. IB Certificate: 24 points. IB Diploma: 24 points.
  8. Surrey IFY · IB Diploma: 24 points. IB Certificate: 24 points.
  9. Sussex IFY · IB first year: 24 points. IB Certificate: 22 points. Diploma accepted. Subject pass: 3.
  10. Aberdeen IFY · IB first year: 22 points. IB Certificate: 20 points.
  11. Huddersfield IFY · IB first year: 20 points. MYP: 23 points.
  12. LJMU IFY · IB Diploma: 20 points. IB Certificate accepted.
  13. Kingston IFY · IB Diploma: 20 points. IB Certificate accepted.
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · IB Diploma: 20 points. IB Certificate accepted.

IB entry splits into three tiers: the 26-point tier (Durham, Leeds, Sheffield, RHUL, Strathclyde), the 24-point tier (Bath, Cardiff, Surrey, Sussex), and the 20-22 point tier (Aberdeen, Huddersfield, LJMU, Kingston, Leeds Beckett). Students with IB scores in the low 20s should focus on ISCs in the bottom tier; those at 26 and above can access nearly the entire network.

HKDSE (Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education)

Hong Kong’s DSE qualification is widely accepted for both IFY and International Year One (IYO) programmes. Typical requirements cluster around three tiers:

  1. Durham IFY · Top schools: Grade E, Level 2, or Pass in 4 or more academic subjects. Other schools: 2C & 2D, or 2×Level 3 & 2×Level 4, or 20% above pass mark in 4 relevant subjects (60% if pass mark is 40%). HKDSE: 3-3-2 in 3 relevant subjects. Must have Maths (3 in Maths for Business, 3 in Maths or Science for Science/Engineering).
  2. Leeds IFY · Form 5 (top schools): Pass in 4 relevant subjects. Form 5 (other schools): 5% above pass mark. HKDSE: 3-2-2 in relevant subjects (2 in Maths or Form 5 Maths pass).
  3. Sheffield IFY · 40% from top schools, 50% from other schools. HKDSE: 3-2-2 in 3 subjects. Must have Maths (3 in Maths for Economics and Management, 2 acceptable for others).
  4. Cardiff IFY · Form 5: Pass in 3 relevant subjects. HKDSE: 2-2-2.
  5. Strathclyde IFY · Top schools: Grade E/Level 2/Pass in 4 academic subjects. Other schools: 2C & 2D or equivalent. HKDSE: 3-2-2. Must have Maths (3 for Business and Science/Engineering).
  6. Surrey IFY · Top schools: Grade E/Level 2/Pass in 4 academic subjects. Other schools: 2C & 2D or equivalent. HKDSE: 3-2-2.
  7. Sussex IFY · 3 subject passes 5% above pass mark. HKDSE: 2-2-2 (Chinese accepted).
  8. Bath IFY · Form 5: Pass in 3 relevant subjects. HKDSE: 2-2-2.
  9. Aberdeen IFY · Form 5: Pass in 3 relevant subjects (or 2 subjects at 5% above pass). HKDSE: 2-2-1.
  10. RHUL IFY · Form 5: Pass in 3 relevant subjects (or 2 at 5% above pass). HKDSE: 2-2-1.
  11. Huddersfield IFY · Pass in 2 or more subjects (or 1 subject 5% above pass). Health and Human Sciences: Biology plus another related subject.
  12. LJMU IFY · Top schools: Grade E/Level 2/Pass in 3 academic subjects. Other schools: Grade D/Level 3/10% above pass mark. HKDSE: 2-2-2. Must have Maths for Business and Science/Engineering.
  13. Kingston IFY · Top schools: Grade E/Level 2/Pass in 3 academic subjects. Other schools: Grade D/Level 3/10% above pass mark. HKDSE: 2-2-2. Must have Maths for Business and Science/Engineering.
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · Form 5: Pass in 2 or more subjects (or 1 at 5% above). HKDSE: 2-1-1 or 2-2.

The DSE requirements follow a clear hierarchy: Durham and Strathclyde are the most demanding, requesting 4 academic subjects from Form 5 or HKDSE 3-3-2; the mid-tier ISCs request 3 subjects at pass or HKDSE 2-2-2; and Huddersfield and Leeds Beckett accept as few as 2 subjects at pass, making them viable fallback options for students with weaker Form 5 or DSE results.

American High School Diploma and AP

US qualifications are accepted by all ISCs, though the exact requirements vary significantly:

  1. Durham IFY · US High School Diploma: minimum GPA 2.75 (77%) with 4 academic subjects. No GED acceptance. International US system schools: Grade 12 GPA 2.75 or 80% or B- with 4 academic subjects; Grade 11 GPA 3.0 or 85% or B with 4 academic subjects.
  2. Leeds IFY · Grade 11: GPA 3.0 (80%) or Grade 12: GPA 2.75 (77%) with 4 academic subjects. GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects. International US schools: Grade 11 GPA 3.0 (85%) or Grade 12 2.75 (80%).
  3. Sheffield IFY · US High School Diploma (Grade 12): GPA 2.5 (74%), 5×3.0 (80%) in relevant subjects. International US Schools: Grade 12 GPA 3.0 or 80% or B- in 4 academic subjects, with minimum 77% or GPA 2.77 or C in relevant subjects like Maths.
  4. Cardiff IFY · Year 11: GPA 2.75 or Year 12: GPA 2.50 with 4 academic subjects. GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects.
  5. Bath IFY · Grade 11: 80% or GPA 2.75 or B-. Grade 12: 74% or GPA 2.5 or C. GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects.
  6. Sussex IFY · Grade 11: GPA 2.75 (77%) or Grade 12: GPA 2.50 (73%). GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects. International US schools: Grade 11 GPA 2.75 (80%) or Grade 12 2.50 (74%).
  7. Surrey IFY · Grade 11: GPA 2.75 (77%) or Grade 12: GPA 2.50 (74%) with 4 academic subjects. GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects.
  8. Strathclyde IFY · US High School Diploma: GPA 2.75 (77%) with 4 academic subjects. International US system schools: GPA 2.75.
  9. RHUL IFY · US High School Diploma: GPA 2.75 (77%) with 4 academic subjects. International US schools: GPA 2.75 (80%). GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects.
  10. Aberdeen IFY · Year 11: GPA 2.75, Year 12: GPA 2.50. GED: 600 overall, 150 in 4 subjects.
  11. Huddersfield IFY · Year 11: GPA 2.50 or Year 12: GPA 2.00. GED: 580 overall, 145 in 4 subjects.
  12. LJMU IFY · US High School Diploma: GPA 2.00 (70%).
  13. Kingston IFY · US High School Diploma: GPA 2.00 (70%).
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · Year 11: GPA 2.50 (74%) or Year 12: GPA 2.00 (70%). GED: 580 overall, 145 in 4 subjects.

The US pathway is among the most accessible for IFY entry. Students with a GPA as low as 2.0 can access Kingston and LJMU foundations, while a GPA of 2.75 opens doors to most Russell Group ISCs including Leeds and Cardiff. Durham’s rejection of GED as a standalone qualification is a notable exclusion that GED holders should be aware of.

Canadian High School Diploma

Canadian secondary qualifications are uniformly accepted, typically requiring Year 11 completion with 60% or higher across 5 academic subjects:

  1. Durham IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  2. Leeds IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  3. Sheffield IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 70%+ in 5 subjects including relevant subjects.
  4. Cardiff IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  5. Strathclyde IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  6. Sussex IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  7. Surrey IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  8. Bath IFY · Completion of Year 11 with average 60%.
  9. Aberdeen IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to 5×GCSE requirements — minimum 60%.
  10. RHUL IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+), including relevant subjects.
  11. Huddersfield IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 4 subjects at A-C (60%+).
  12. Kingston IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 4 subjects at A-C (60%+).
  13. LJMU IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 4 subjects at A-C (60%+).
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 4 subjects at A-C (60%+).

Canadian applicants benefit from one of the most standardised entry frameworks across ISCs. The primary variable is the number of subjects required: Russell Group ISCs ask for 5, while post-1992 ISCs accept 4. Sheffield stands alone in requiring 70% rather than 60%, reflecting its higher overall standards.

Australian Year 12

Australian Year 12 qualifications are accepted by all ISCs, usually with an ATAR requirement alongside Year 11 or Year 12 transcripts:

  1. Durham IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE requirements (minimum 60%). ATAR: varies by state.
  2. Leeds IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (60%+).
  3. Sheffield IFY · High School Graduation Diploma (Year 12): Overall 50% in 5 subjects, with relevant subject 70%. State-specific requirements apply (ACT Year 10 Certificate with Cs in 5 subjects; NSW Higher School Certificate with 50% in 5 subjects including 55% in prerequisites; Victoria VCE with Ds in 5 subjects including Ds in prerequisites; and so on for each state).
  4. Cardiff IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent grades to GCSE/IGCSE — minimum 60% including relevant subjects.
  5. Sussex IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent grades to GCSE/IGCSE — minimum 60%.
  6. Surrey IFY · Completion of Year 11 with 5 subjects at A-C (minimum 60%).
  7. Bath IFY · Completion of Year 11 with average 60%.
  8. Strathclyde IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE (minimum 60%).
  9. RHUL IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE (minimum 60%).
  10. Aberdeen IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE (minimum 60%).
  11. Huddersfield IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE.
  12. Kingston IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE.
  13. LJMU IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE.
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · Completion of Year 11 with equivalent to GCSE/IGCSE.

Sheffield provides the most detailed Australian state-by-state breakdown, accepting recognised certificates from all Australian states and territories (ACT, NSW, NT, Queensland, SA, Tasmania, Victoria, WA) with specific grade requirements per state. For most other ISCs, Year 11 performance at 60% or above is the primary criterion.

Indian Standard XII

Indian qualifications (CBSE and BISCE boards) are widely accepted. However, Haryana and Punjab state board qualifications are explicitly excluded by most ISCs. Acceptance policies:

  1. CBSE and BISCE Standard XII: Accepted by all ISCs in the network. Minimum marks vary by ISC and stream, generally 50-60% overall with specific subject requirements for Science and Engineering pathways.
  2. Haryana and Punjab State Boards: NOT accepted for IFY entry at most ISCs. Students from these boards may need to present alternative qualifications or complete an additional preparatory year.
  3. Subject requirements: For Business pathways, Mathematics at Standard XII level is generally preferred but not always mandatory. For Science and Engineering, Mathematics and one science subject (Physics or Chemistry) at 55-65% minimum are typically required.
  4. Age requirement: Most ISCs require students to be 17 years or older at the start of the programme.

Malaysian SPM

The Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) is accepted for IFY entry, though thresholds are set in terms of grade equivalents:

  1. SPM with passes in 5 relevant subjects at grades equivalent to GCSE 9-4 (A-C) is the standard requirement across most ISCs.
  2. For Science and Engineering pathways, Mathematics and one science subject at credit level (Grade C or above) are typically required.
  3. SPM English Language results may be accepted in lieu of IELTS at some ISCs, subject to specific band requirements.

WAEC, WASSCE, and NECO (West Africa)

West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE), West African Examinations Council (WAEC), and National Examinations Council (NECO) qualifications are accepted for IFY entry:

  1. Five passes at C6 or above in relevant subjects, including English and Mathematics, is the standard benchmark.
  2. For Science and Engineering streams, passes in Mathematics and a science subject (Physics, Chemistry, or Biology) at C6 or above are required.
  3. WAEC/NECO English Language at C6 or above may satisfy English language requirements at some ISCs, eliminating the need for a separate IELTS test.

Irish Leaving Certificate

The Irish Leaving Certificate is accepted across the ISC network:

  1. Five subjects at O6/H7 or above in relevant subjects is the typical entry threshold.
  2. For competitive streams (Medicine, Law, Engineering), higher grades — typically H5 or above in relevant subjects — may be required.
  3. Irish students benefit from the Common Travel Area arrangements, which simplify visa and fee status considerations compared to non-EU applicants.

Age Requirements by ISC

Every ISC sets a minimum age for enrolment, measured as the student’s age on the first day of the programme. Here is the breakdown:

  1. Durham IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  2. Leeds IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  3. Sheffield IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  4. Cardiff IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  5. Bath IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  6. Sussex IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  7. Surrey IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  8. Strathclyde IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  9. Aberdeen IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  10. RHUL IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  11. Huddersfield IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  12. Kingston IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  13. LJMU IFY · Minimum age: 17 years
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · Minimum age: 17 years

The age requirement is uniform at 17 years across the entire Study Group ISC network for foundation programmes. This means students who complete secondary education at 16 in some education systems (such as those following the British-pattern O-Level/IGCSE model) can enrol directly without a gap year, provided they turn 17 by the programme start date. Students turning 17 mid-programme may need to defer to the next intake.

English Language Requirements Overview

IELTS remains the primary English language benchmark, but thresholds vary widely:

  1. Sheffield IFY · IELTS 6.0 (no band below 5.0) for the 1.5-term programme, or IELTS 5.0 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0) for the 2-term programme.
  2. Durham IFY · IELTS 5.5 (Reading and Writing 5.5, others 5.0) for Law; IELTS 5.5 (no band below 5.0) for other pathways.
  3. Leeds IFY · IELTS 5.0 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0).
  4. Cardiff IFY · IELTS 5.0 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0).
  5. Bath IFY · IELTS 5.0 (no band below 4.5) or 5.5 (no band below 5.0).
  6. Sussex IFY · IELTS 5.0 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0).
  7. Surrey IFY · IELTS 5.0 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0) for Science and Engineering; IELTS 5.5 (no band below 5.0) for Business and Life Sciences.
  8. Strathclyde IFY · IELTS 5.0 (Writing 4.5, others 4.0).
  9. RHUL IFY · IELTS 5.0 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0). Can start with 4.5.
  10. Aberdeen IFY · IELTS 4.5 (Writing 4.5, others 4.0) — the lowest IELTS threshold in the network.
  11. Huddersfield IFY · IELTS 4.5 (no band below 4.0).
  12. Kingston IFY · IELTS 4.5 (Writing 5.0, others 4.0).
  13. LJMU IFY · IELTS 4.5 (no band below 4.0).
  14. Leeds Beckett IFY · IELTS 4.5 (Writing 4.5, others 4.0).

The English threshold spans a full band and a half, from Aberdeen’s 4.5 to Sheffield’s 6.0. This means students with IELTS 4.5 should focus on Aberdeen, Huddersfield, Kingston, LJMU, and Leeds Beckett; those with 5.0 can access the majority of the network; and Sheffield’s 6.0 requirement is the highest barrier.

How to Choose the Right ISC for Your Qualification

Given the wide variation in entry requirements, the strategic approach is to match your qualifications to the ISCs where you meet both the academic and English thresholds. Here is a decision framework:

  1. If you have strong A-Levels (24+ UCAS points) · You can access virtually the entire network. Consider university reputation, location, and cost rather than entry barriers.
  2. If you have mid-range IB scores (22-24 points) · Target Cardiff, Surrey, Sussex, Bath, and Aberdeen. Durham, Leeds, Sheffield, and Strathclyde require 26 points.
  3. If your HKDSE results are 2-2-2 · You qualify for Cardiff, Sussex, Bath, Aberdeen, RHUL, Huddersfield, LJMU, Kingston, and Leeds Beckett. Durham and Strathclyde require higher.
  4. If your US GPA is 2.0-2.5 · Focus on Huddersfield, LJMU, Kingston, and Leeds Beckett. For Russell Group ISCs, aim for 2.75 or above.
  5. If your IELTS is 4.5 · Aberdeen, Huddersfield, Kingston, LJMU, and Leeds Beckett are your primary options. With 5.0, most ISCs open up.

The IFY pathway is designed to be inclusive: even with modest secondary school results, there is likely an ISC that can accept you. The trade-off is that more accessible ISCs generally lead to lower-ranked or post-1992 universities. The decision is ultimately about balancing immediate accessibility against long-term university prestige.

FAQ

Q1: Can I use predicted grades to apply for an IFY programme?

Yes. All ISCs accept predicted grades for conditional offers. Your offer will specify the final grades required, and you must meet those conditions before enrolment. If your final results fall short, some ISCs may offer a place on a longer programme (such as a 3-term IFY instead of a 2-term) or on an English language preparation course before the IFY.

Q2: What if my qualification is not listed by the ISC I want to apply to?

Contact the ISC admissions office directly. The qualification tables published by Study Group cover the most common international curricula, but admissions teams regularly assess qualifications from less common systems (such as various African, South American, and Central Asian national certificates). You may need to provide a syllabus, transcript, and grading scale for evaluation. In many cases, the ISC can make an equivalency determination within a few working days.

Q3: Are foundation programmes only for international students?

In the Study Group ISC model, the IFY is designed specifically for international (non-UK) students. UK-domiciled students who do not meet direct entry requirements for undergraduate degrees typically pursue Access to HE Diplomas or foundation years offered directly by UK universities rather than through ISCs. There is no nationality restriction, but the fee structure and admissions process are built around international applicants.

Q4: Can I switch ISCs after starting a foundation programme?

Internal transfers between ISCs are rare but not impossible. Because each ISC is tied to a specific university and foundation programme, a transfer would typically require restarting the IFY at the new ISC. If you are unhappy with your ISC choice after arrival, speak to your student support team early — it may be possible to apply to a different university’s IFY for the next intake, but this will delay your progression by at least one semester.

References

  • Study Group International Study Centre entry requirements for International Foundation Year programmes, 2026/27 academic year
  • Durham University International Study Centre IFY academic entry criteria, 2026
  • University of Leeds International Study Centre IFY entry requirements, 2026
  • University of Sheffield International Study Centre IFY qualification acceptance policy, 2026/27
  • Cardiff University International Study Centre IFY entry criteria, 2026
  • University of Aberdeen International Study Centre IFY entry requirements, 2026
  • University of Bath International Study Centre IFY entry requirements, 2026/27

Data as of June 2026. Entry requirements are published by each ISC and may change between academic years. Always consult the specific ISC website for the most current information before applying. Grade requirements are minimum thresholds; meeting them does not guarantee admission, as places are subject to availability and holistic assessment.